Islamic Civilization Timeline and Definition

The Islamic Civilization is today and was in the past an amalgam of a wide variety of cultures, made up of polities and countries from North Africa to the western periphery of the Pacific Ocean, and from Central Asia to sub-Saharan Africa. The vast and sweeping Islamic Empire was created in the 7th and 8th centuries CE, reaching a unity through a series of conquests with its neighbors. That initial unity disintegrated in the 9th and 10th centuries, but was reborn and revitalized again and again for more than a thousand years. Throughout the period, Islamic states rose and fell in constant transformation, absorbing and embracing other cultures and peoples, building great cities and establishing and maintaining a vast trade network. At the same time, the empire ushered in great advances in philosophy, science, law, medicine, art, architecture, engineering, and technology. A central element of the Islamic empire is the Islamic religion. Varying widely in practice and politics, each of branches and sects of the Islamic religion today espouses monotheism. In some respects, the Islamic religion could be viewed as a reform movement arising from monotheistic Judaism and Christianity. The Islamic empire reflects that rich amalgamation. Background In 622 CE, the Byzantine empire was expanding out of Constantinople, led by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (d. 641). Heraclius launched several campaigns against the Sasanians, who had been occupying much of the Middle East, including Damascus and Jerusalem, for nearly a decade. Heracliuss war was nothing less than a crusade, intended to drive out the Sasanians and restore Christian rule to the Holy Land.    As Heraclius was taking power in Constantinople, a man named Muhammad bin Abd Allah (lived about 570–632) was beginning to preach an alternative, more radical monotheism in west Arabia: Islam, literally a submission to Gods will. The founder of the Islamic Empire was a philosopher/prophet, but what we know of Muhammad comes mostly from accounts at least two or three generations after his death. The following timeline tracks the movements of the major power center of the Islamic empire in Arabia and the Middle East. There were and are caliphates in Africa, Europe, central Asia, and Southeast Asia that have their own separate but aligned histories that are not addressed here. Muhammad The Prophet (622–632 CE) Tradition says that in 610 CE, Muhammad received the first verses of the Kuran from Allah from the angel Gabriel. By 615, a community of his followers was established in his hometown of Mecca in present-day Saudi Arabia. Muhammad was a member of a middle clan of the high-prestige Western Arabic tribe of the Quraysh, However, his family was among his strongest opponents and detractors, considering him no more than a magician or soothsayer. In 622, Muhammad was forced out of Mecca and began his hejira, moving his community of followers to Medina (also in Saudi Arabia). There he was welcomed by the local Muslims, purchased a plot of land and built a modest mosque with adjoining apartments for him to live in. The mosque became the original seat of the Islamic government, as Muhammad assumed greater political and religious authority, drawing up a constitution and establishing trade networks apart and in competition with his Quraysh cousins. In 632, Muhammad died and was buried in his mosque at Medina, today still an important shrine in Islam. The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs (632–661) After Muhammads death, the growing Islamic community was led by the al-Khulafa al-Rashidun, the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, who were all followers and friends of Muhammad. The four were Abu Bakr (632–634), Umar (634–644), Uthman (644–656), and Ali (656–661), and to them caliph meant successor or deputy of Muhammad. The first caliph was Abu Bakr ibn Abi Quhafa and he was selected after some contentious debate within the community. Each of the subsequent rulers was also chosen according to merit and after some strenuous debate; that selection took place after the first and subsequent caliphs were murdered. Umayyad Dynasty (661–750 CE) In 661, after the murder of Ali, the Umayyads, Muhammads family the Quraysh took over the rule of the Islamic movement. The first of the line was Muawiya, and he and his descendants ruled for 90 years, one of several striking differences from the Rashidun. The leaders saw themselves as the absolute leaders of Islam, subject only to God, and called themselves Gods Caliph and Amir al-Muminin (Commander of the Faithful). The Umayyads ruled when the Arab Muslim conquest of former Byzantine and Sasanid territories were taking effect, and Islam emerged as the major religion and culture of the region. The new society, with its capital moved from Mecca to Damascus in Syria, had included both Islamic and Arabic identities. That dual identity developed in spite of the Umayyads, who wanted to segregate out the Arabs as the elite ruling class. Under Umayyad control, the civilization expanded from a group of loosely and weakly-held societies in Libya and parts of eastern Iran to a centrally-controlled caliphate stretching from central Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Abbasid Revolt (750–945) In 750, the Abbasids seized power from the Umayyads in what they referred to as a revolution (dawla). The Abbasids saw the Umayyads as an elitist Arab dynasty, and they wanted to return the Islamic community back to the Rashidun period, seeking to govern in a universal fashion as symbols of a unified Sunni community. To do that, they emphasized their family lineage down from Muhammad, rather than his Quraysh ancestors, and transferred the caliphate center to Mesopotamia, with the caliph Abbasid Al-Mansur (r. 754–775) founding Baghdad as the new capital. The Abbasids began the tradition of the use of honorifics (al-) attached to their names, to denote their links to Allah. They continued the use as well, using Gods Caliph and Commander of the Faithful as titles for their leaders, but also adopted the title al-Imam. The Persian culture (political, literary, and personnel) became fully integrated into Abbasid society. They successfully consolidated and strengthened their control over their lands. Baghdad became the economic, cultural, and intellectual capital of the Muslim world. Under the first two centuries of Abbasid rule, the Islamic empire officially became a new multicultural society, composed of Aramaic speakers, Christians and Jews, Persian-speakers, and Arabs concentrated in the cities. Abbasid Decline and Mongol Invasion 945–1258 By the early 10th century, however, the Abbasids were already in trouble and the empire was falling apart, a result of dwindling resources and inside pressure from newly independent dynasties in formerly Abbasid territories. These dynasties included the Samanids (819–1005) in eastern Iran, the Fatimids (909–1171) and Ayyubids (1169–1280) in Egypt and the Buyids (945–1055) in Iraq and Iran. In 945, the Abbasid caliph al-Mustakfi was deposed by a Buyid caliph, and the Seljuks, a dynasty of Turkish Sunni Muslims, ruled the empire from 1055–1194, after which the empire returned to Abbasid control. In 1258, Mongols sacked Baghdad, putting an end to the Abbasid presence in the empire. Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517) The next important rulers of the Islamic empire were the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria. This family had its roots in the Ayyubid confederation founded by Saladin in 1169. The Mamluk Sultan Qutuz defeated the Mongols in 1260 and was himself assassinated by Baybars (1260–1277), the first Mamluk leader of the Islamic empire. Baybars established himself as Sultan and ruled over the eastern Mediterranean part of the Islamic empire. Protracted struggles against the Mongols continued through the mid-14th century, but under the Mamluks, the leading cities of Damascus and Cairo became centers of learning and hubs of commerce in international trade. The Mamluks in turn were conquered by theOttomans in 1517. Ottoman Empire (1517–1923) The Ottoman Empire emerged about 1300 CE as a small principality on former Byzantine territory. Named after the ruling dynasty, the Osman, the first ruler (1300–1324), the Ottoman empire grew throughout the next two centuries. In 1516–1517, the Ottoman emperor Selim I defeated the Mamluks, essentially doubling his empires size and adding in Mecca and Medina. The Ottoman Empire began to lose power as the world modernized and grew closer. It officially came to an end with the close of World War I. Sources Anscombe, Frederick F. Islam and the Age of Ottoman Reform. Past Present 208.1 (2010): 159–89. Print.Carvajal, Josà © C. Islamicization or Islamicizations? Expansion of Islam and Social Practice in the Vega of Granada (South-East Spain). World Archaeology 45.1 (2013): 109–23. Print.Casana, Jesse. Structural Transformations in Settlement Systems of the Northern Levant. American Journal of Archaeology 111.2 (2007): 195–223. Print.Insoll, Timothy Islamic Archaeology and the Sahara. The Libyan Desert: Natural Resources and Cultural Heritage. Eds. Mattingly, David, et al. Vol. 6: The Society For Libyan Studies, 2006. Print.Larsen, Kjersti, ed. Knowledge, Renewal and Religion: Repositioning and Changing Ideological and Material Circumstances among the Swahili on the East African Coast. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitututet, 2009. Print.Meri, Josef Waleed, ed. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print.Moaddel, Mansoor. The Study o f Islamic Culture and Politics: An Overview and Assessment. Annual Review of Sociology 28.1 (2002): 359–86. Print.Robinson, Chase E. Islamic Civilization in Thirty Lives: The First 1,000 Years. Oakland: University of California Press, 2016. Print.Soares, Benjamin. The Historiography of Islam in West Africa: An Anthropologists View. The Journal of African History 55.01 (2014): 27–36. Print.

Comparative Methodological Critique - 3073 Words

Comparative Methodological Critique Introduction The aim of this paper is to compare two academic research papers, one informed by qualitative and another one by quantitative research designs with focus on the methodological factors. Both papers describe working lives and attitudes of gay and lesbian workers in the UK and USA, possible consequences of disclosure of sexual orientation on their working relations and organisational arrangements towards equality and diversity of working practice. These research projects add to the growing number of studies which shed light on the sensitive nature of homosexuality in the workplace and anti-discrimination policies and practices that organisations deploy to create a more inclusive working†¦show more content†¦Whereas the Regulations empowered LGB people to step in and â€Å"challenge discrimination and harassment† (Colgan et al., 2007:604), the key factor, as identified by the authors, â€Å"that prevented some respondents coming out at work †¦ the fear† (Colga n et al., 2007) remained the main obstacle to LGB workers to blowing the whistle and reporting an incident. These findings are supported and justified throughout the paper by respondents’ statements and results of previous studies. The research team also defined the relation between the impact of the employment equality (SO) regulations, considered as independent variable, and such dependent variables like job satisfaction, being out at work, experience of harassment and discrimination, this in fact gives an idea of the existing problem in organisational practices. In terms of structure, language and appropriateness of referencing to other material this paper proves highly informative. 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Obesity and Cancer Risk Free Essays

According to the National Cancer Institute, obesity is a condition in which a person has an abnormally high and unhealthy proportion of body fat. Obesity is measured by calculating a person’s BMI. Years of research prove that there are connections between obesity and cancer risk. We will write a custom essay sample on Obesity and Cancer Risk or any similar topic only for you Order Now Research shows us that an increase in body weight increases insulin levels in the blood, which promote the development of certain tumors and tumor regulators. Fat cells also produce adipokine hormones, which stimulate cell growth. Leptin, which is abundant in obese people, acts on a receptor on the brain where a person exhibits appetite and promotes cell proliferation, or cell growth. Essentially, excess body weight is the catalyst for hormones in the body to not function properly while additionally promoting cell growth, which is the major cause of cancer spread. In 2007 research found 34,000 new cases of cancer in men and 50,500 new cases in women due to obesity. It is estimated that 1:5 cancer related deaths are due to overweight and obesity. Obesity is associated with several cancers in the body, including in the esophagus, pancreas, colon and rectum, kidney, thyroid, gallbladder, breast (after menopause) and endometrium (the lining of the uterus). Weight gain affects the body’s immune system, certain hormones including insulin and estrogen, and factors that regulate cell division. Scientists in the American Cancer Society admit that research is limited in learning whether or not weight loss can reduce cancer risk. There is growing evidence to suggest that a reduction in weight may diminish the risk of breast cancer, after menopause, as well as more aggressive forms of prostate cancer. However, obese people who lose weight often reduce certain hormone levels that relate to cancer risk, such as insulin and estrogen. Cites: National Cancer Institute http://www. cancer. gov The American Cancer Society http://www. cancer. org The PubMed Data base http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed How to cite Obesity and Cancer Risk, Essay examples

Iraq Persuasive Essay Example For Students

Iraq Persuasive Essay IraqThe country of Iraq has weathered many hardships over the past few decades. An eight-year war over territory with Iran began in 1980. Soon after, in 1990, Iraq invaded the country of Kuwait, which led to the Gulf War. Then, after twelve years of not complying with the UN Security Council over weapons of mass destruction, Iraq was invaded by the United States in March of 2003. A consequence of Iraqs rocky past is an unstable government. Several countries, including the U.S. are currently providing aid to help the rebuilding effort. Some efforts include strengthening school, healthcare, and law enforcement systems with education and reconstruction. Recent government changes for Iraq include a new flag and new currency. The new flag has a blue crescent moon in the center and is white with one yellow and two blue strips at the bottom. The new currency is called the New Iraqi Dinar, and it features many new safety features to prevent counterfeiting. There is also currently an interim (temporary) government in Iraq. Elections by the Iraqi people will hopefully occur on the 30th of January this year. If the elections proceed as planned, Iraq will be one step closer to having an independent government. Though Iraq is in a time of crisis, it is truly an interesting and beautiful country. At twice the size of Idaho, it is the home to about 25,374,691 Iraqis. The primary religion in Iraq is Muslim. Almost 97% of Iraqis are practicing Muslims. There are also many languages spoken by the people of Iraq. The four languages that are mainly used in the country are Arabic, Kurdish, Assyrian, and Armenian. These languages are most commonly found in the Middle East, where Iraq is located. Unfortunately, Iraq can only be visited for emergencies or press at this time. This is mainly because of terrorist attacks in protest of the invaders who ended Saddam Hussein, the former dictator of Iraqs, regime. When and if things clear up for the country of Iraq, many people will enjoy visiting the attractions of Iraq and its capital, Baghdad. The city of Baghdad is home to many cultural and historical sites. There are beautiful monuments, restaurants, and mosques. Sadly, many of Baghdads museums have been looted and destroyed in the past few years. Fortunately, they are in the process of being rebuilt and restored. In time, Baghdad will be a wonderful place to visit. Another historical location in Iraq is the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It was the scenic and fertile location of ancient Mesopotamia, the worlds first known civilization. One amazing historical landmark is the Dur Kurigalzu, an ancient temple from the 14th century B.C. Another place of great history is the ruins of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. In its time, it was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Its also quite a wonder how Iraq has such a varied climate. The climate ranges from desert to mountainous. Weather in Iraq is normally mild in the winter, with very hot and dry summers. Often, in the spring, snow from the northern mountains melts and floods central and southern Iraq. If flooding occurs, it delays many forms of transportation. Iraq has many methods of transport. There is 45,550 total kilometers of road in the country, and 111 airports. Counting the main rivers, there is about 5,275 kilometers of waterways. There are thousands of kilometers of pipelines, and also almost 2,000 kilometers of railroad. Along with the population, these numbers are only expected to increase. Right now in Iraq, for every 33 births, there are only 5 deaths. The population density is up to 55 people per square kilometer and growing. .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .postImageUrl , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:hover , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:visited , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:active { border:0!important; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:active , .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80 .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9a160fa2a92f8c047f3a13e1fed20c80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Mexican War EssayThe country of Iraq has improved and grown very quickly recently. It appears that even with the brutal history and harsh government the Iraqi people have endured, they have come great strides in rebuilding their unique country. Someday, with continued aid and persistence, Iraq may reach its potential of a stable and peaceful nation.